Understanding Attachment Theory
Why do some individuals effortlessly develop secure relationships while others find it challenging to trust or fear intimacy? The Enlightened Mind delves into attachment theory, which examines the long-term relationships and connections between individuals, such as parent-child and romantic partnerships. This psychological concept aims to explain the emotional bonds and relationships people form.
According to this theory, individuals have an innate need to establish connections with their caregivers from birth. These initial attachments lay the groundwork for future relationships and have a lasting impact on attachments throughout one’s life.
History of the Attachment Theory
The understanding of early relationships by psychologists has evolved over time. The first attachment theorist was British psychologist John Bowlby, who defined attachment as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings.” Bowlby’s focus was on comprehending the anxiety and distress experienced by children when separated from their primary caregivers.
Freud and other thinkers suggested that infants form attachments based on the source of pleasure. For example, infants in the oral development stage become attached to their mothers because they satisfy their oral needs.
Initially, some behavioral theories proposed that attachment was a learned behavior. These theories claimed that attachment stemmed from the feeding relationship between the child and caregiver. The child formed attachment because the caregiver provided nourishment and food.
Attachment Theory and Separation Anxiety
According to The Enlightened Mind, Bowlby noted that feedings did not reduce separation anxiety but rather discovered that attachment involves distinct behavioral and motivation patterns. In times of fear, children instinctively seek closeness to their main caregiver to seek comfort and support.
Understanding How Attachment Works
Attachment refers to an emotional connection with another individual. According to Bowlby, the initial bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a significant and lasting impact. He proposed that attachment not only keeps the infant physically close to the mother but also enhances the child’s chances of survival.
Bowlby’s perspective on attachment emphasized its roots in evolutionary processes. While traditional behavioral theories suggested that attachment is learned, Bowlby and others argued that children have an inherent drive to form attachments with their caregivers.
Throughout history, children who stayed close to their attachment figures were more likely to receive care and protection, increasing their chances of survival into adulthood. As a result of natural selection, a motivational system evolved to regulate attachment behaviors.
The core concept of attachment theory is based on the idea that responsive and available primary caregivers enable infants to develop a sense of security. This understanding helps the infant trust the caregiver’s reliability, creating a secure foundation for exploring the world.
Factors Influencing Successful Attachment
According to The Enlightened Mind, successful attachment is determined by various factors. Behaviorists initially believed that food was the main factor in forming attachment behavior. However, Bowlby and other researchers showed that nurturance and responsiveness play a more significant role in determining attachment.
Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation”
In her research in the 1970s, psychologist Mary Ainsworth built upon Bowlby’s work by conducting the groundbreaking “strange situation” study. This study highlighted the significant impact of attachment on behavior by observing children aged 12 to 18 months as they reacted to being briefly left alone and reunited with their mothers.
Ainsworth identified three primary attachment styles based on the children’s responses: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Later, Main and Solomon (1986) introduced a fourth attachment style, disorganized-insecure attachment, after conducting their own research.
Subsequent studies have corroborated Ainsworth’s attachment styles and demonstrated that these styles can influence behaviors later in life.
Maternal Deprivation Studies
Harry Harlow conducted studies on maternal deprivation and social isolation in the 1950s and 1960s to explore early bonds. Through various experiments, Harlow illustrated the emergence of these bonds and their significant impact on behavior and functioning.
In one experiment, newborn rhesus monkeys were separated from their birth mothers and raised by surrogate mothers. These infant monkeys were placed in cages with two wire-monkey mothers – one providing nourishment through a bottle, and the other covered in a soft terry cloth.
Although the infant monkeys approached the wire mother for food, they predominantly spent their time with the cloth mother. When scared, the baby monkeys sought comfort and security from the cloth-covered mother.
Harlow’s research highlighted that early attachments were formed through receiving comfort and care from a caregiver, rather than solely from being fed.
The Phases of Bonding
Researchers Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson conducted a longitudinal study involving 60 infants to examine their attachment relationships. The infants were regularly observed for the first year of life and once more at 18 months.
According to their findings, Schaffer and Emerson identified four specific stages of attachment, which are:
Pre-Attachment Stage
During the initial three months after birth, infants do not exhibit a specific attachment to a particular caregiver. The infant’s cues, like crying and being unsettled, naturally draw the caregiver’s attention, and the baby’s positive responses encourage the caregiver to remain in close proximity.
Indiscriminate Attachment
Infants typically start to develop preferences for primary and secondary caregivers between 6 weeks and 7 months of age. During this time, they form trust that their caregivers will meet their needs. Although infants may still accept care from others, they begin to differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar individuals, showing a more positive response to their primary caregiver.
Discriminate Attachment
During this stage, typically between 7 to 11 months of age, babies develop a strong attachment and favoritism towards one specific individual. They exhibit distress when separated from their primary attachment figure (separation anxiety) and start to show signs of unease around unfamiliar people (stranger anxiety).
Multiple Attachments
After about 9 months of age, children start developing close emotional connections with other caregivers besides the main attachment figure. This can involve a second parent, older siblings, and grandparents.
Influential Factors on Attachment Formation
Despite the seemingly simple nature of the attachment process, various factors can impact the timing and manner in which attachments form, such as:
For some children, the absence of consistent caregiving during their early years might result in attachment disorders. The failure to establish early bonds can have a profound impact on their social and emotional growth.
The Four Primary Attachment Styles
There are four main attachment styles, namely: 8
Ambivalent Attachment
Children exhibiting an ambivalent attachment style experience significant distress when separated from a parent. Due to inconsistent parental availability, these children lack the assurance that their primary caregiver will be present in times of need.
Previous studies by Cassidy and Berlin suggested that approximately 7% to 15% of children in the United States displayed ambivalent attachment. Recent research now indicates that around 13.2% demonstrate an anxious/avoidant attachment style.
Avoidant Attachment
Children exhibiting an avoidant attachment pattern tend to steer clear of parents or caregivers, displaying no clear preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. This type of attachment style could stem from experiencing abusive or neglectful caregivers. When children are penalized for seeking support from a caregiver, they may internalize this avoidance and refrain from seeking help in the future.
Disorganized Attachment
Children with a disorganized attachment style exhibit a perplexing blend of actions, appearing disoriented, dazed, or perplexed. They might evade or oppose the parent. The absence of a distinct attachment pattern is probably associated with irregular caregiver conduct. In these instances, parents could act as both a source of solace and dread, resulting in disorganized behavior.
Secure Attachment
Children who can rely on their caregivers exhibit distress upon separation and joy upon reunion. Despite feeling upset, they have confidence that the caregiver will return. Securely attached children feel comfortable seeking comfort from their caregivers when scared, representing the most common attachment style. Studies indicate that 81.8% of individuals possess a secure attachment style.
The Long-Term Influence of Early Attachment
Children who form secure attachments in infancy are more likely to develop strong self-esteem and improved self-reliance as they mature. These children also exhibit greater independence, academic success, positive social connections, and reduced levels of depression and anxiety.
Studies indicate that the absence of secure attachments in early childhood can have detrimental effects on behavior in later stages of childhood and into adulthood.11
Attachment Problems in Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder, and PTSD
Children who have been diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often exhibit attachment difficulties, which could be linked to experiences of abuse, neglect, or trauma in their early years. Research suggests that children who are adopted after the age of 6 months may be at a heightened risk of developing attachment issues.
Attachment Disorders
Children may develop attachment disorders, including reactive attachment disorder (RAD) and disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED).
Adult Attachment in Relationships
While adult attachment styles may differ from those observed in infancy, early attachments can profoundly influence later relationships. Individuals who had secure attachments in childhood typically exhibit high self-esteem, healthy romantic relationships, and the capacity for open communication with others. Conversely, those with insecure attachments often grapple with issues related to trust and intimacy.
Key Points to Remember
Early research by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth has shaped our understanding of attachment theory, emphasizing the crucial role of early caregiver relationships in a child’s development.
These early bonds can impact adult romantic relationships, making it essential to be aware of your attachment style to improve relationship security.
Citations:
– Bowlby J. Attachment and Loss. Basic Books.
– Bowlby J. “Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect” in Am J Orthopsychiatry, 1982;52(4):664-678.
– Draper P, Belsky J. “Personality development in the evolutionary perspective” in J Pers, 1990;58(1):141-61.
– Ainsworth MD, Bell SM. “Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation” in Child Dev, 1970;41(1):49-67.
References
Main M, Solomon J. Discovery of a new, insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In: Brazelton TB, Yogman M, eds., Affective Development in Infancy. Ablex.
Harlow HF. The nature of love. The American Psychologist. 1958;13(12):673-685. doi:10.1037/h0047884
Schaffer HR, Emerson PE. The development of social attachments in infancy. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 1964;29:1-77. doi:10.2307/1165727
Lyons-Ruth K. Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1996;64(1):64-73. doi:https:10.1037/0022-006X.64.1.64
Cassidy J, Berlin LJ. The insecure/ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child Development. 1994;65(4):971-991.
Thambireddy S, Nirmala S, Nuvvula S. Prevalence of different attachment styles in 9 to 12 years old school children: a cross-sectional study. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. Published online 2023. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2023/64693.18639
Research on Attachment Styles and Personality Development
A study by Young ES, Simpson JA, Griskevicius V, Huelsnitz CO, and Fleck C published in Self and Identity in 2019 explores the relationship between childhood attachment and adult personality from a life history perspective.
Niemann S and Weiss S investigated the factors influencing attachment in international adoptees six months post-adoption, as published in Child Youth Serv Rev in 2012.
Another review by Irfan N, Nair A, Bhaskaran J, Akter M, and Watts T, published in Cureus in 2022, focuses on the current understanding of reactive attachment disorder.
Lastly, Guyon-Harris KL, Humphreys KL, Miron D, et al. conducted a study published in J Abnorm Child Psychol in 2019, indicating that disinhibited social engagement disorder in early childhood predicts reduced competence in early adolescence.
